EUL MS 493/add.1 A photograph of Mark Beeson (1975)
Mark Beeson (1954-2022) was born in Powell River, Canada, to Christopher and Jane Beeson. Mark spent most of his childhood on a farm on Dartmoor, boarding at Highfield School and Winchester College before moving to Oxford to initially study Classics at Magdalen College, before changing to Human Sciences. Mark’s correspondence during his time at university reveals a sense of disconnection with Oxford and a longing for the landscape of Dartmoor.
In 1979, his archaeological survey of Widecombe-in-the-Moor was published in collaboration with Michael Masterman for the Devon Sites and Monuments Register. A year later, Mark’s poem ‘The Walk’ won a prize in the Arvon Foundation’s first international poetry competition, with Ted Hughes commenting that “both Seamus [Heaney] and myself were very taken by it”. Also in 1980, Mark married Alison Hastie, with whom he had two children: Luke and Teffan.
A prolific writer, poet, and playwright from a young age, Mark’s first community play, ‘The Badgers’, was performed in 1980 and followed two archaeologists as they navigated a badgers’ sett. The play explored the government’s policy of badger culling and its impact on Dartmoor and the environment. It would be the first of many community plays written by Mark and performed by MED Theatre during his 30-year tenure as Artistic Director.
In 1981, after working for years to receive external funding, Mark travelled to the Zomba Plateau in Malawi to complete a self-funded study of the blue monkeys native to the area, under the supervision of primatologist Vernon Reynolds. Mark’s detailed diaries, and his verse novel ‘The Blue Monkeys of Zomba Plateau,’ beautifully describe the landscape of Malawi, detailing the day-to-day tasks completed by Mark on the mountain, his observations, and even his shopping lists.
EUL MS 488/DAR/14/3 A handmade parody magazine made by Mark Beeson while studying blue monkeys in Malawi.
In 1986, Mark’s research on the blue monkeys was awarded an MPhil in primate ecology from the University of Exeter, and he was later elected to the Linnean Society. Inspired by the family structures of blue monkeys, Mark founded Manaton and East Dartmoor Theatre (later named MED Theatre), a rural community theatre company, in 1989. Mark’s contribution to Dartmoor theatre was recognised in 2002 when he received the Dartmoor Society Award.
Mark drew inspiration from a multitude of subjects, and his plays were often inspired by the mythology and landscape of Dartmoor. With stories about badger culling, bees, salmon, swallows, and even the tragic tale of Donald Crowhurst, Mark’s plays are exciting, creative, and often comedic. Several of the plays were adapted or written for radio and produced by BBC Radio 4, including Hound of the Cabells, The Primates (1984), The Therapists (1986), and The Swallows (1989).
Mark also founded The Dart magazine with Alison Hastie and local friends. The magazine began production in 1981 and continued until 2001, publishing articles on subjects such as nuclear disarmament, environmental concerns, local traditions and trades, and other community issues.
The Mark Beeson collection (EUL MS 488) consists of 66 boxes of archival material divided into five sections: personal material, literary papers, primatology, Widecombe-in-the-Moor Archaeological Survey, Dartmoor, and MED Theatre. We also hold a collection of letters from Mark Beeson to his good friend Gerard McBurney (EUL MS 493).
The breadth and diversity of the collection makes it rich for researchers interested in subjects such as theatre studies, the history of Devon and Dartmoor, folklore, primatology and scientific research, and sociology. Mark’s correspondence, writing, press cuttings and other papers place him within a community of environmentalists, activists, and artists, and showcases the alternative cultures of Devon and Cornwall in the 1970s and 80s.
Thank you to Luke and Teffan Beeson for permission to publish the images included in this blog.
Although Exeter is not renowned for its African collections, there is some valuable material here. Our Middle East archives and AWDU collections include extensive material from Egypt and Sudan, with a range of items from other North African countries including Libya, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. As a member of SCOLMA, the UK Libraries and Archives Group on Africa, Exeter also specialises in material on Ghana, and the ‘Ghana Collection’ housed in the Old Library, has thousands of books, official documents, microfilms and pamphlets. However, we also have a unique and fascinating archive in Special Collections that documents the work of Jean Trevor with Hausa girls and young women in northern Nigeria.
Jean Trevor (1931-75)
Jean Trevor in the Nigeria plateau region
Jean Felicity Cole was born in Bodmin, Cornwall, on 20 April 1931. After completing school she studied for a sociology degree at LSE before going out to teach in northern Nigeria in 1953. Over the next few years she taught in different schools in northern Nigeria, mostly in the Hausa language which is spoken by millions of people in this part of the country, as well as in other countries such as Ghana and Cameroon. In Nigeria, it was spoken by the closely-related Hausa and Fulani tribes, and having learned the language, Jean was able not only to teach but also to converse with local families and develop a deeper understanding of their social lives and aspirations
For the first two years or so she was based in a Girls’ School in Sokoto, also known as ‘the City of Shaihu and Bello.’ This is a reference to the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, Shehu Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817), and his son Muhammadu Bello (1781-1837) who succeeded him as Second Caliph.
In Jean’s time, the Caliphate was ruled by Siddiq Abubakar III (1903-88), a direct descendant of Dan Fodio. He became 17th Sultan of Sokoto in 1938 and reigned for fifty years, until his death in 1988. George VI awarded him a KBE in 1944, and after Nigeria attained independence in 1960, he was made a Grand Commander of the Order of the Niger (GCON) by the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1964. He was a supporter and government colleague of Sir Ahmadu Bello GCON KBE (1910-66), who was also descended from Dan Fodio. A photograph of him appears in the newspaper cutting above.
Ahmadu Bello University – where Jean later did her PhD – was founded in 1961, bringing together the School of Arabic Studies in Kano with the Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, and the Agricultural Research Institute (both of which were at Samaru) along with the Institute of Administration at Zaria, and the Veterinary Research Institute at Vom. The new university was based at Zaria, some 400 km SE of Sokoto.
Issue of ABU’s Institute of Education Bulletin containing Jean’s article ‘A Cultural Interpreter’ about Modibbo Sodangi, an elderly woman who had recently died, having been responsible for teaching girls ‘tarbiyya’ (moral character) in Sokoto from 1938 until a few years before her death. Jean and Sodangi first met in 1953.
Marriage and Family Life
While in Nigeria she met Arthur Henry Tudor Trevor (1920-2003), son of the former Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, Lt. Col. Arthur P. Trevor ICS (1872-1930), who was then working in agricultural development. They married on Christmas Eve 1957 in Maiduguri, capital of Borno State, in NE Nigeria.
Much of her time over the next few years was spent raising her two sons, David (born in 1958) and his younger brother Tom (born in 1962). While they returned for some of the time to their house on the Hartland peninsula in North Devon, the Trevors remained in Nigeria and there are numerous family photographs of the young boys playing in the gardens and countryside.
Tudor Trevor was involved in theatre and media production as part of his role as an agricultural development officer, and between 1958 and 1961 Jean worked with him in creating educational films and radio broadcasts in Hausa. Between 1964 and 1967 she taught African teachers at the University of Exeter and was appointed to the editorial team of the Commonwealth Teachers Magazine. A single issue is in the archive and provides some interesting impressions of England and Devon as recounted by teachers from countries such as Tanzania, British Guiana, Malawi and Jamaica.
The Development of Jean’s PhD
Jean’s experience of living and teaching in Nigeria for fourteen years, enriched by the conversations she had had in Hausa, had given her plenty of time to reflect upon the role of education in the lives of her pupils and their families. At some point her growing knowledge of the local community, combined with her evolving understanding of teaching practices and educational theory, combined to suggest to her the idea of researching these themes in a more formal study.
It is important to realise that her PhD was not undertaken as one single funded project, but was built around a series of short grants from different institutions, each of whom expected different things from her. Initially, her plan had been to write a fairly straightforward analysis of attitudes to female education, based on interviews with the schoolgirls, their families, local community figures and Islamic teachers, plus her own observations. After discussions with Gillmore Lee, Professor of Psychology at Leicester University, and Professor Robert LeVine of the University of Chicago, she was persuaded to follow their advice and switch to using formal quantitative methods to interpret her interview data. This involved devising questionnaires to which the questions could be assigned numerical values, that were then translated into code form, which could be recorded on punched cards.
Some of Jean Trevor’s punched data cardsNumerical values used to analyse data as recorded on the punched cards
This work was carried out in challenging circumstances, with much of her grant money being spent on car repairs as she tried to drive around the countryside interviewing young Hausa women (see photo below!). Initially funded by a Commonwealth Postgraduate Research Scholarship, she then obtained – through the help of Professor LeVine – a Research Fellowship within the Child Development Centre at Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria in 1968. The University of Chicago money stopped at the end of December 1969 due to the US Department of Education cutting its grant (at the time of writing, this sounds very topical!) but further support from the Carnegie Foundation and the Ford Foundation allowed her to pursue her research under the auspices of the Department of Community Medicine at ABU. The Overseas Development Administration (ODA) offered Jean an Educational Development Award of £2,500 p.a. to cover the period between September 1971 and March 1972, but she then had to apply to the Population Council for another grant, for which she stated that her thesis title was ‘Effects of schooling in Moslem women’s attitudes to family size, child rearing practices and family planning in North West Nigeria’, emphasising its relevance for population studies. The University of Exeter then appointed her an Investigator in the Department of Education (Population Council Research Project) for six months from January 1973 to help her write up her thesis.
Academic Theories and Scholarly Circles
A name that appears regularly in Jean’s notes is that of Sir Frederick Lugard (1858-1945), a colonial administrator who was closely involved in the country’s affairs in the early 20th century. After working with the Royal Niger Company, he was appointed High Commissioner of the newly created Protectorate of Northern Nigeria in 1900, Governor of both the Southern and Northern Protectorates in 1912, and in 1914 became the first Governor-General of Nigeria, created through the unification of the two protectorates. While his policies included suppressing Fulani resistance to British rule – he organised the military campaign against the Emir of Kano, capturing Kano in 1903, as well as the Sultan of Sokoto Muhammadu Attahiru I, who was killed in battle in 1903 – Lugard was also intensely interested in education. He established a new Education Ordinance and Education Code for Nigeria in 1916 and his book The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1923) lays out in detail his theories about the place of education in colonial administration, stressing its value as a tool for development.
However, the close link between education and colonisation was deeply problematic in post-1960 independent Nigeria, given that Lugard regarded Africans as racially inferior to Europeans and his educational policy was explicitly utilitarian, aimed at producing loyal subjects who served their local community for the greater good, rather than seeing education as something of value to an individual in its own right. There was also an imbalance between the north and the south, both in terms of education and political strength, which contributed to the later divisions and secessions that arose during the second half of the century.
A prize-giving ceremony at an agricultural fair
As Jean’s research focused on attitudes towards education and its purpose, she needed to engage with the ideas and legacy of Lugard, as well as those of contemporary sociologists, anthropologists and others. She collaborated a few times with the late Jerome H. Barkow (1944-2024), a professor at Dalhouse University in Nova Scotia who had spent many years studying the Hausa in Nigeria and Niger; Jean helped with a conference paper and there are several letters between them in the archive. Jerry wrote to her about another academic: ‘I find him quite old-fashioned theoretically, very much vulnerable to contemporary criticism of much African anthropology as frankly colonial’ and Jean’s papers reveal that she did not always see eye to eye with the views and conduct of senior figures working in her field.
The nature of her work meant she was in contact with a wide number of academics and professionals, in Nigeria, the UK and the USA, including anthropologist Sylvia Leith Ross (1884-1980) who settled in Nigeria in 1907 and founded girls’ schools in both Lagos and Kano, Dr Ishaya Sha’aibu Audu, Vice-Chancellor of Ahmadu Bello University and former physician to Bello himself, Professor Umaru Shehu of the ABU Institute of Health, Professor Richard D’Aeth of the University of Exeter’s School of Education, as well as prominent scholars such as Professor Mervyn Hiskett (1920-94) and anthropologist Professor Michael G. Smith (1921-93). There are also numerous letters from Hausa women, young girls, local teachers and the wives of important figures around Sokoto and Kano.
Islamic Aspects: from Jama’atu Nasril Islam to Boko Haram
Despite the uncertainties and trials of her PhD research, Jean often gave thought to finding employment once she had finished her PhD, and in 1973 she was invited by the Jama’atu Nasril Islam (Society for the Progress of Islam) to apply for the post of Principal of the Moslem Ladies College in Kaduna – an offer she declined, as she wanted to concentrate on completing her thesis. This was, however, recognition of the respect with which she and her work were regarded in the local Islamic community.
Jama’atu Nasril Islam (JNI) was established in Kaduna in 1962 by Sir Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, as an umbrella organisation for the promotion of Islam, following advice from the Grand Khadi of Northern Nigeria, Alhaji Abubakar Gummi.
While Jean’s research focused on the social and cultural attitudes towards female education – such as whether girls who were expected to marry at a young age believed schooling would benefit them – this was intrinsically related to Islamic views on the value of knowledge, the role of women, and the differences between Quranic schools and western theories of education. Many of Jean’s notes related to Islam, including records of conversations she had with girls’ families, but she also undertook an interview with Alhaji Abubakar el Nafaty, Secretary of Jama’a Nasril Islam in December 1968, and another interview about education with the Grand Khadi, Alhaji Abubakar Gummi, the following May. Accounts of these interviews are in the archive, plus her description of a visit to the main Islamic school at Sokoto in February 1969, as well as a copy of monthly magazine Haske: The Light of Islam No.17 (1970) and various religious texts in both Hausa and Arabic.
Islamic attitudes towards western education in Nigeria have, of course, come under intense scrutiny in recent years since the rise of the militant group known as ‘Boko Haram’, which is often (mis-)translated as ‘Western education is forbidden.’ The group was founded in 2002 and its actual name in Arabic is Jamā’at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da’wah wa’l-Jihād, with the Hausa phrase ‘Boko Haram’ better translated as a prohibition of ‘westernization’ or ‘western civilization.’ The educational aspect is, however, a key element of the influence that the group so fiercely opposes, and their brutal campaign has seen the killing of tens of thousands of Nigerians, including many children, as well as the infamous kidnapping of almost 300 schoolgirls from a school in Chibok in NE Nigeria.
Much has been written about ‘Boko Haram’ in recent years, but the scale of violence and terror associated with the group’s campaign has not created a climate that supports much nuanced analysis. It is therefore interesting to find frank yet subtle discussions amongst Jean’s papers, such as her interview with the Emir of Gwanda in February 1969, in which he explained distinctions between attitudes to female education in Gwanda compared to Sokoto, and told her ‘Your boko can be as good at addini [religion] as a traditionally trained girl.’
She and Abubakar el Nafaty even discussed the theology of Teilhard du Chardin, exploring different understandings of the relationship between science and religion. In her conversation with the Grand Khadi, they talked in more detail about boko makaranta [western education] and his view that ‘Criticism of Boko is due to the false division of religion and secular life. This is a mistake – in Islam everything is a unity.’ In addition to these interviews, Jean recorded the views and stories of the wives of local professors and teachers, recalling their own experiences of education decades earlier, sometimes by European missionaries, and how the British colonial rule of Nigeria had changed how the people lived.
Photograph of a mass baptism in a river, possibly part of the Christian revival in the early 1970s
The papers, photographs, correspondence and other documents in the Jean Trevor archive provide insights into different aspects of Nigerian life at this period, including developments in both secondary and higher education, agricultural methods, Islamic movements, colonialism and the British relations with African countries at the end of the empire, as well as community health, textiles and costume, marriage customs and popular culture.
Northern Region Marketing Board materials
The Northern Region Marketing Board was the new name in 1954 for what had previously been the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing Board. We have material on the groundnut industry in Nigeria within the archive of the Imperial Institute (EUL MS 61):
The archive catalogue for EUL MS 79 can be browsed here.
To mark the 50th anniversary of the death of Jean Trevor this year, an event is being held at the University of Exeter on 2 July that will include a presentation from a visiting Nigerian scholar – more details will follow shortly.
Some writings by Jean Trevor:
‘A Cultural Interpreter’, Bulletin of the Institute of Education, Ahmadu Bello University Vol.6, No.1 (May 1969) pp.9-12
‘A preliminary report on the demographic aspects of a study of family change in traditional Moslem Fulani/Hausa urban centres – Sokoto’ [unpublished typescript]
‘Family change in Sokoto: a traditional Moslem Fulani/Hausa city’ in J.C. Caldwell et al (eds.), Population growth and socio economic change in West Africa (Columbia University Press, 1974)
‘Traditional Values and the Traditional Position of Women in Sokoto City’ [unpublished typescript]
‘The Education of Moslem Hausa Women of Sokoto, N.W. Nigeria’ [unpublished typescript]
‘Moslem women: what did our school do for them?’, (manuscript)
‘Moslem school girls: did our school help or hinder them?’ [unpublished typescript, January 1974]
Student volunteer and PhD student Charlie Clark‘s new exhibition of items from the University of Exeter’s Special Collections explores the relationship between magic and civil law, from the 16th century to present day. You can find the exhibition in the display case on Level 0 of the Forum Library on Streatham Campus.
Introduction
Much has already been said about the persecution of so-called ‘witches’ in early-modern Europe. Between 1542 and 1736, the introduction and enforcement of the Witchcraft Act in England and Wales meant that the civil arm of the law was responsible for prosecuting individuals suspected of its practice. The accused, disproportionately women, were blamed for causing a range of undesirable circumstances, including illness and death, at Satan’s behest.
However, the story does not end with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act in 1736. Self-proclaimed ’witches’, or individuals practising ‘witchcraft’ or ’sorcery’, first sought legal recognition and protection in the UK in the twentieth century. Consequently, practitioners reclaiming such terminology continue to engage with one another, with the latter often appealing to the memory of the witch trials to assert their rights. Meanwhile, witchcraft trials continue to take place in the contemporary world. People still alive today have been the focus of accusations, ordeals, and subsequent punishments for their perceived guilt.
This new exhibition of items from the University of Exeter’s Special Collections seeks to raise awareness of the continued relationship between magic and civil law. It first explores early-modern witch trials in England, focusing on the Bideford witch trials that took place in Exeter and the introduction of legal protections for self-proclaimed ‘witches’. The exhibition will conclude with an examination of witchcraft trials in twentieth-century Socotra, demonstrating that such accusations continue to impact communities today.
Witchcraft in Early-Modern England
Discussions concerning witch-hunting in early-modern England should begin with the introduction of the Witchcraft Act in 1542. This law, and its successors (1563, 1604), made civil authorities rather than ecclesiastical ones responsible for the extermination of heretics employing “witchcrafts enchauntmentes or sorceries” (An Act against Conjurations, Witchcrafts, Sorcery and Inchantments; Great Britain Parliament House of Commons, vol. 1). Thus, anyone suspected of using witchcraft to procure knowledge or wealth, or to harm others, would be executed. This was ratified by King James I in 1604 (Acts of the Parliament of Scotland, vol. 4), reemphasising the need to expunge Christian society of witches, who were understood to act at the behest of the Devil. Indeed, King James possessed a keen interest in witchcraft, authoring the Daemonologia (not displayed in this exhibition, but available via the University of Exeter’s Special Collections).
Such perceptions of the capabilities of and dangers posed by witches, as well as the desire for civil authorities to handle such cases, were codified by the Malleus Maleficarum, “The Hammer of the Witches”, which greatly influenced the later introduction of the Witchcraft Act (Gent, 1982 – Edmund pamphlet 942.359/B40 GEN). Written and published by Heinrich Kramer in Speyer in 1486, the text is divided into three sections. The first is concerned with proving that the heresy of witchcraft exists; the second discusses the powers possessed by witches; and the third describes the ‘appropriate’ procedure for prosecution. Hearsay and other non-verifiable sources of evidence were enough to justify the accusation and arrest of suspects, who tended to be women who occupied socially ambiguous or marginalised positions, such as widows and midwives. The guilt of the accused would be assumed; if the woman maintained her innocence, a confession would be forced by torture “so that the truth will be had from [her] mouth and [she] will no longer offend the ears of the judges” (trans. Mackay, 2015). If the accused did not confess, they would be told that a confession would spare them the death penalty. The Malleus confirms that this was a lie, as it enjoins civil authorities to prescribe death to all those suspected of practising witchcraft, proclaiming “extermination to heretics” (trans. Mackay, 2015). The manuscript on display (Baring-Gould Library 0495) was copied in 1588. Its faded cover and fragile binding, as well as its late production date, bear witness to the popularity and longevity of beliefs surrounding witchcraft during this period.
Prior to the publication of the Malleus, there are few records that describe the prosecution of witches. A surge in the number of trials and prosecutions follow its publication, further demonstrating its widespread impact. Indeed, accusations, trials and death sentences across England typically followed the pattern laid out by the Malleus Maleficarum. One such trial occurred in Devon in 1682, commemorated on a plaque in Heavitree. Gent (1982, Edmund pamphlet 942.359/B40 GEN) recounts how Temperance Lloyd, Mary Trembles and Susanna Edwards were arrested and tried for witchcraft following sensationalised accusations that they had caused illnesses and death, possessed “carnal knowledge” of the Devil, and could perform supernatural acts including shapeshifting. The trial was held at the Exeter Assizes amid much publicity. As the Malleus prescribed, hearsay and public animosity comprised much of the evidence against the accused, and they were manipulated into giving confessions. They were found guilty on the 14th of August and hung eleven days later.
The final execution of a so-called ‘witch’ occurred in 1712, with the victim later royally pardoned (Gent, 1982, Edmund pamphlet 942.359/B40 GEN). The Witchcraft Act was finally repealed in 1736 (Great Britain Parliament House of Commons, vol. 24), marking the end of the witch-hunt craze in England. However, the relationship between ‘witchcraft’ and secular law did not conclude here; rather, it continued further into modernity.
Contemporary Witchcraft: England
An increasing number of individuals, typically adherents of paganism and related faiths, self-identify as witches and practitioners of witchcraft. As a result, several groups have formed to promote and defend the legal recognition and protection of their members. Whilst it’s unclear how many of today’s witches identify with persecuted individuals in early-modern England, proponents of pagan rights continue to cite historic trials and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights when advocating for their rights (and rites!) (EUL MS 105/29). Their success sharply contrasts the fervor of the witch hunts a mere three centuries prior.
One such group is the Pagan Front – now known as the Pagan Federation – which was formally established in 1971. Their manifesto, written in 1970, outlines their beliefs and aims. Confidently self-identifying as ‘witches’, the Front acknowledges that, while “past persecution and intolerance” may hinder their public acceptance, “Witches and other Pagans are people, too, and have the same human and civil rights as anyone else” (EUL MS 105/29, emphasis added). Thus, a primary concern of theirs has been to enjoin civil law to protect witches and practitioners of witchcraft.
Indeed, self-identified witches began to use their newfound legal protections to their benefit. An open letter to the Secretary of State for Home Affairs, dated the 20th of March 1970, detailed a defamation case against the press (EUL MS 105/29). The Pagan Front referred to false claims that a Wiccan had lured a teenager into witchcraft to seduce her; this accusation had resulted in the destruction of private property belonging to pagans. The letter implied that the Witchcraft Act and its consequences continued to loom over the pagan community – referring to the “repeal of the anachronistic Witchcraft Act”, the letter implores the addressee to understand that the witchcraft practised by modern pagans is not harmful, despite the claims of the Malleus and related texts.
The result of the case described above is unclear. However, the twenty-first century has witnessed a significant progression in the rights of self-proclaimed witches. The 2010 Equality Act protects people of any (or no) faith, including pagans, from discrimination, harassment and victimisation (Legislation.gov.uk). This has resulted in legal cases that would have been unimaginable in early-modern England. Notably, a witch called Karen Holland claimed that she was unfairly dismissed from her job for attending a Halloween festival. The court ruled that the dismissal was indefensible based on religious discrimination and awarded her £15,241.28 (‘Holland v Angel Supermarket Ltd and Anor’, 2013). While it may be the case that witches continue to face discrimination, the law is now on their side.
Contemporary Witchcraft: Socotra
Unlike the English witch hunts, the prosecution of so-called ‘witches’ in Socotra endures in living memory. ‘Witches’ – exclusively women – were tried and excommunicated by law in Socotra, an island currently under Yemeni jurisdiction, until the end of the Sultanate period in 1967 (Peutz, 2009). Accounts detail trials by ordeal and subsequent banishments, which have had an enduring impact on the accused and their families.
John Carter, in his writings on Omani witchcraft (EUL MS 476/1/7), recounts the typical legal proceedings following an accusation of witchcraft in the 1950s. Every year, between fifteen to twenty women would be sent to Hadibo, the capital of Socotra, to be put on trial. If the accused maintained her innocence, the Sultan, who oversaw the law courts, would recommend a trial by ordeal, carried out by a well-reputed Muslim. The accused would be tied up with rocks, taken out to sea and dunked at a depth of fifteen feet. If she hit the seabed three times, she was considered innocent. If she floated back to shore, she was deemed guilty and forced onto the next departing vessel to be exiled. Her children couldn’t go with her. Carter witnessed one such trial of three women in 1955. One admitted her guilt prior to the ordeal, whilst the others were found guilty. All three women were excommunicated, and thus cut off from their families.
The consequences of these trials reverberate even today, sometimes in unexpected ways. Peutz (2009) spoke to both a woman excommunicated on account of her perceived practise of sorcery, and her family back in Socotra. She, like many other banished women, did not openly discuss the reasons for her exile. She continues to support the Socotran economy by sending home monetary gifts, some of which have been used to build important structures including mosques. Meanwhile, her family do discuss the reasons for her banishment – which, at first glance, is unexpected. The Socotran government and populace outwardly treat their “traditional” but “erroneous” beliefs in witchcraft and sorcery (as cited in Peutz, 2009) with palpable embarrassment, referring to the relevant period as the “regime of ignorance” (Peutz, 2009). Despite this, though no longer punishable by law, rumours of its practice still circulate amongst locals. There is no legal protection for anyone who may choose to self-identify as such.
Conclusion
This exhibition has sought to raise awareness of the continued relationship between witchcraft and civil law – not only in Europe, where the history of witch-hunts is well known, but elsewhere in the world. As we have seen, English witches appeal to past persecutions to advocate for their civil rights, which has resulted in the introduction of legal protections. Meanwhile, although witch trials are no longer legal in Socotra, the victims of accusations and their families continue to live with the consequences of persecution and now-defunct laws that targeted so-called ‘witches’. Thus, laws regarding witches and witchcraft continue to impact communities in the contemporary world.
Mackay, Christopher S. (trans.). 2009. The Hammer of Witches: A Complete Translation of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1st ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
With less than a week to go before the general election, cataloguing archivist Hollie Piff decided to search through our collections for material with an electoral theme.
The University’s Special Collections are vast and cover a broad range of topics, so it’s unsurprising that general elections popped up more than once when searching the catalogue.
A.L. Rowse
The first collection that caught my eye, and inspired a new exhibition in the Forum Library, were the Papers of A.L. Rowse (EUL MS 113). A.L. Rowse was an historian, poet, diarist, biographer, and critic, born in Tregonissey near St. Austell, Cornwall. He won a scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford, gaining a first-class honours degree in history in 1925 when he was also elected Fellow of All Souls, Oxford. It was during this period that he established many of the social contacts with academic, political, and literary circles that he maintained for the rest of his life. Rowse was a prolific letter writer, so his collection contains hundreds of letters from politicians, artists, writers, and other notable people, including correspondence from Prime Ministers.
Correspondence from Winston Churchill reveals a friendship between the two men, and many of Churchill’s letters praise Rowse’s writing. Rowse wrote two books about Churchill and his family, and supported Churchill in the publication of his own book, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, in 1956. Rowse was invited to celebrate the publication of A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, and the seating plan shows him placed at the head table with Churchill. The guests were served salmon and roast beef, followed by a crinoline lady cake for dessert. Other notable guests included Sir Allen Lane, co-founder of Penguin Books, and Eartha Kitt, singer of ‘Santa Baby’.
Books written by A.L. Rowse, including The Early and Later Churchills
Unfortunately, not all the letters were quite so celebratory. A letter from Denis Thatcher, Margaret Thatcher’s husband, to Rowse on the 19th of November 1990 reveals a weariness at 10 Downing Street. “Over 30 years of vicarious politics,” Thatcher writes, “I have learnt that it is harsh and often thankless” (EUL MS 113/3/1/T). This letter came five days after a Conservative Party leadership election was called by Michael Heseltine, which perhaps explains Denis Thatcher’s suggestion that “the combination of the ambitious and the disaffected changes the course of history, more often than not for the worse” (EUL MS 113/3/1/T). The very next day Margaret Thatcher would fail to win the first ballot outright, and would announce her resignation on the 22nd of November 1990.
Syon Abbey
Rather unexpectedly, general elections also feature in the Syon Abbey collection (EUL MS 389). Syon Abbey was a monastery of the Bridgettine Order, founded at Twickenham in 1415. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, the community split into groups to continue their religious practice; some groups stayed in England while others travelled abroad. In 1861 the community returned to England, settling in Devon from 1925 until 2011 when the monastery was closed.
In 1951, the nuns applied to the Bishop of Plymouth to be allowed to leave the abbey to vote in the general election. The bishop’s office wrote to the abbess to say that as the “election [was] of a very serious nature,” they should “write to the Apostolic Delegate” for special permission (EUL MS 389/ECC/1/9). Permission was eventually granted by William Godfrey, papal representative to England and later Archbishop of Westminster, and the nuns were allowed to vote.
The 1951 general election was “of a very serious nature” because it was called 20 months after the 1950 general election. The result was tight and, while the Labour Party won the most votes, the first-past-the-post system meant that the Conservative Party, with Winston Churchill as leader, took power in Westminster with a majority of only 17 seats.
Items from the Syon Abbey Collection (EUL MS 389)
Cecil Harmsworth
The Cecil Harmsworth (1869-1948) papers (EUL MS 435) provide an insight into the day-to-day life of an MP in the early 20th century. Harmsworth was a Liberal politician, born in London and educated at Trinity College Dublin. His political career began in 1899 when he ran unsuccessfully as the Liberal candidate for Mid Worcestershire, and later as the Liberal candidate for North East Lanarkshire in 1901. Harmsworth’s luck changed in 1906 when he became the Liberal MP for Droitwich, and his defeat in the 1910 general election eventually led to his extended tenure as MP for Luton from 1911-1922. Harmsworth also served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary for the Home Department under Lloyd George, and as Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and was appointed to the House of Lords in 1939.
The collection is particularly rich in autobiographical writing, with personal and travel diaries from 1900-1948. The diaries contain personal and professional observations and notes, including references to domestic and foreign policy, and inserted press cuttings, letters, and cards. Both World Wars are represented, including an entry on Monday 23rd April 1945 declaring the end of the black out “after five long years” (EUL MS 435/1/1).
Harmsworth also created a scrapbook to document his time in the House of Commons. The scrapbook is fragile and incomplete, but it contains copies of letters from H.H. Asquith, dinner menus, press cuttings, and addresses to Parliament.
EUL MS 435/2/14 – Scrapbook of items relating to the House of Commons, 1906-1922
Over the last three months, undergraduate students Joelle Cutting and Charlotte Lovell have been working on a volunteering project here at Special Collections to create dissertation guides for students interested in using archives and rare books. The guides aim to highlight under-used archival collections and encourage more students to the breadth of resources held here in the Special Collections. This blog will introduce you to the project and explore some of the highlights of each guide.
You can find the dissertation guides on the Special Collections LibGuides webpage.
Knowing where to start with your dissertation is an incredibly daunting task, but we hope that the English and History Dissertation guides that we have been working on over the past few months will help. These dissertation guides were created in collaboration with staff from the University’s Special Collections to help students access some of the excellent material in our archives here at Exeter.
Joelle:
After combing through the online archival catalogue, we have organised collections into categories that cover possible avenues of interest for dissertation topics. For example, in the English Dissertation Guide there is a section that lists all the archives relating to writers from the Southwest. We have an exceptional collection of unique material here at Exeter, and these dissertation guides provide a great starting point for research. It is worth noting that for those doing a creative writing dissertation, or doing a joint honours course that includes a language, there are opportunities discussed in the guide too. Some of the collections offer inspiration for a creative writing dissertation and others are written in other languages, providing the chance for translation. Plenty of the collections have had very little research done about them and provide plenty of scope for a unique and original dissertation topic.
Within the guides, there is introductory information on how to use the guides themselves and how to navigate the online archival catalogue which holds information about all of the archives in our Special Collections. The physical archival material discussed in the guide is kept in the Old Library and can be viewed by booking an appointment on the Special Collections website — the guide contains further details on how to do this.
Charlotte and I have learnt so much about the collections during this project, so we thought we would share some highlights from the collections that we found particularly interesting.
The English Dissertation Guide includes topics such as well-known writers, poetry, theatre, and journalism, but also features more niche topics that you may not have considered. One of the elements of the archival material that we have here at Exeter which surprised me was the amount of biographical writing. After studying the genre of life writing more closely on the Transatlantic Literary Relations module in second year, I was made aware of how this genre of writing has been often overlooked. I think that the wealth of biographical material we have in our archives could inspire an interesting exploration of the life writing genre and its importance.
EUL MS 413 Letters of John Jarmain documenting his experiences in North Africa and South Italy during the Second World War from June 1942 until November 1943
Another topic in this guide that particularly excited me was the Art and Literature section. Art and literature are both creative outputs that influence culture and oftentimes influence each other. In our collections here at Exeter we have material relating to the collaboration between poet Ted Hughes and artist Leonard Baskin which might prove to be of particular interest to those who studied Modernism and Modernity in their second year. Aside from these two examples there is a real wealth of material to explore in the Special Collections, so if you’re feeling stuck with your dissertation, I really do encourage you to go and have a look for yourself!
Charlotte:
I hope that the history dissertation guide will be helpful, as one of the biggest hurdles when writing any piece of history is locating relevant and reliable primary sources. This guide is organised into thematic categories ranging from politics and government, military and scientific history to religious/folk, education or women’s history and so much more. Each category is then organised into three general period distinctions of medieval, early modern and modern, to make navigation and discovery optimal. Obviously, categorisation is not this clear cut, and it is worth looking through categories you might not be immediately drawn to as these sources will have a plethora of uses not necessarily restricted to the more obvious categories. It is for this reason that the guide will often signpost the collections that can be used very clearly in multiple collections.
The guide intends to highlight underused collections in a way that also encourages creative and interdisciplinary approaches. To do this, each section concludes with a few ideas for how the guides can be used, including comparative methods of research. This was one of my favourite parts of creating the guide. As my degree is only three years, and as there is only so much history one can write in that time, it was very refreshing and thought-provoking to look for ideas and themes within areas of history I wouldn’t normally get to explore. For example, I found the history of education collections fascinating, especially the Margaret Littlewood papers on Ford Manor (a school of music and physical therapy) and how they might connect to the Sue Jennings papers on dramatherapy. Exploring these collections opened my eyes to the innovative educational methods and therapeutic practices from different historical periods, and how they intersected with broader cultural and social trends.
The guide also highlights some important standalone collections, like the Bill Douglas Cinema Museum and the Hypatia collection. The Bill Douglas Cinema Museum is a treasure trove for anyone interested in the history of film and cinema. It houses an extensive range of artefacts, from early cinema apparatus and memorabilia to film posters and personal papers of filmmakers. This collection is perfect for exploring the evolution of cinematic technology and the cultural impact of film through the ages.
The Hypatia Rare Books Collection
The Hypatia collection is dedicated to literature by and about women. It’s a huge collection that covers a wide range of topics, from women’s suffrage and feminist theory to women’s contributions in various fields. This collection is invaluable for understanding the historical and ongoing struggles and achievements of women, providing rich primary sources for research on gender studies. You can find out more about the Hypatia collection on the Special Collections’ LibGuides.
Something that cannot be understated is the wealth of resources available at the University’s archives. This project took over 12 weeks and still will only be able to scratch the surface of the research opportunities available in the University’s archives. I highly encourage, at any part of your degree, to have a look at the guide and begin to think about how the University’s collection can be utilised in your work. And, most importantly, going into the collection and seeing some of the incredible archives you have access to while at the University of Exeter.
University of Exeter Special Collections are pleased to announce that the papers of Astronomer, Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer are now available to consult online as part of Wiley Digital Archive’s British Association for the Advancement of Science Database (Collections on the History of Science: 1830-1970). Students at University of Exeter (and other institutions with the relevant subscription) can access the digitised material through their institutional login. A free trial subscription is also available at https://www.wileydigitalarchives.com/british-association-for-the-advancement-of-science/
Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer (1836-1920), astronomer, was one of the pioneers of astronomical spectroscopy and became one of the most influential astronomers of his time. His main interest was sun spectroscopy, which led him to discover helium independently of Pierre Janssen, a scientist who posited its existence in the same year. He was born in Rugby in 1836, the only son of a surgeon-apothecary, Joseph Hooley Lockyer and was educated privately in England and he also studied languages on the Continent. At the age of twenty-one became a clerk in the War Office, and married Winifred James in the following year. He developed interests in astronomy and journalism, and in 1863 began to give scientific papers to the Royal Astronomical Society. He proceeded to push back the frontiers of spectroscopy and science, discovering the theoretical existence of helium (a chemical not then known on Earth), and was awarded a medal by the French Academy of Sciences in the same year for developing a new technique to observe solar prominences at times other than eclipses.
Sir Norman Lockyer as Science Editor of The Reader
In 1869 Lockyer founded the journal ‘Nature’, which he edited until a few months before his death, and which remains to this day a major resource for international scientific knowledge. In 1870 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, which over the next five years reported on scientific education and resulted in the government setting up a laboratory of solar physics at South Kensington. To further this work, Lockyer was transferred from the War Office to the Science and Art Department at South Kensington in 1875. Here he organised an international exhibition of scientific apparatus, as well as establishing the loan collection which eventually formed the nucleus of the collections of the Science Museum.
Throughout this period, Lockyer continued to be active in astronomical observations and in spectroscopic studies in the laboratory of the College of Chemistry; he also wrote several books on astronomy and spectral analysis. Lockyer also studied the correlations between solar activity and weather, and developed interests in meteorology. In 1878 he was given charge of the solar-physics work then being carried out at South Kensington, being made Director of the Solar Physics Laboratory. Lockyer also became a lecturer in the Normal School Science in 1881, and became the first professor of astronomical physics in 1887, a post which he held until 1901. (In 1890 the School was renamed the Royal College of Science, which later became part of the Imperial College of Science and Technology). Lockyer continued his work as Director of the Solar Physics Laboratory until the laboratory moved to Cambridge, with the original laboratory site being used in part in the building of the Science Museum.
Kensington Telescope at Hill Observatory
After retiring to Devon with his wife, Lockyer established a solar observatory at Sidmouth on the suggestion of Francis McLean, the son of the astronomer and philanthropist Frank McLean. This observatory, begun in 1912, was set up for astrophysical observations, and was originally called the Hill Observatory. Following the completion of building work at the site at Salcombe Regis, near Sidmouth, Devon, solar work commenced in 1913 using the Kensington telescope which had been brought from the observatory in South Kensington, London. The Observatory was officially established as a charitable trust in 1916, and was renamed in Lockyer’s honour by his family after he died in Salcombe Regis, Devon, inAugust 1920. The Lockyer family continued to play an important role in the running of the observatory. Following a generous endowment from Robert Mond, the Observatory was established as a centre of astronomical excellence, and later became The Norman Lockyer Observatory Corporation of the University of Exeter (University College of the South West of England until 1955). The principal telescopes were donated by Lockyer and by Francis McLean, who had originally suggested the building of the observatory. A further telescope was donated by Robert Mond in 1932. The observatory is still running today.
The collection that has been digitised includes the personal correspondence and some of the research papers of Sir Norman Lockyer. The ‘Marconi telegram’ is also included, notifying Sir Norman Lockyer of the first Atlantic transmission using Ether waves, sent from Marconi at Mullion, Cornwall, to Sir Norman Lockyer of the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington, London, 12 January 1903, with copy telegram on reverse to Marconi from Norman Lockyer confirming receipt. Amongst the research papers are two boxes of eclipse notebooks 1870-1911, lecture notes 1870-1898, notes about articles, papers relating to the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction 1871-1877, papers relating to the transfer of the Solar Physics Laboratory to Cambridge 1911-1912, and other papers relating to education, lectures and addresses. Other personal papers include those arising from his being awarded honorary degrees and his attendance at public functions.
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